In physics, the second law of thermodynamics says that a closed system tends to become more disordered over time. This disorder is captured in an entity called entropy. Many devices, especially clocks, are affected by this law because they need to tick regularly to measure time. But every tick creates a bit of disorder, i.e. increases the entropy, and physicists have believed for a long time now that this places a fundamental limit on how precise a clock can be. The more precise you want your clock, the more entropy (and thus more energy) you’ll have to expend.

A study published in Nature Physics on June 2 challenges this wisdom. In it, researchers from Austria, Malta, and Sweden asked if the second law of thermodynamics really set a limit on a clock’s precision and came away, surprisingly, with a design of a new kind of quantum clock that’s too precise scientists once believed possible for the amount of energy it spends to achieve that precision.

The researchers designed this clock using a spin chain. Imagine a ring made of several quantum sites, like minuscule cups. Each cup can hold an excitation — say, a marble that can hop from cup to cup. This excitation moves around the ring and every time it completes a full circle, the clock ticks once. A spin chain is, broadly speaking, a series of connected quantum systems (the sites) arranged in a ring and the excitation is a subatomic particle or packet of energy that moves from site to site.

In most clocks, every tick is accompanied by the dissipation of some energy and a small increase in entropy. But in the model in the new study, only the last link in the circle, where the last quantum system was linked to the first one, dissipated energy. Everywhere else, the excitation moved without losing energy, like a wave gliding smoothly around the ring. The movement of the excitation in this lossless way through most of the ring is called coherent transport.

The researchers used computer simulations to help them adjust the hopping rates — or how easily the excitation moved between sites — and thus to make the clock as precise as possible. They found that the best setup involved dividing the ring into three regions: (i) in the preparation ramp, the excitation was shaped into a wave packet; (ii) in the bulk propagation phase, the wave packet moved steadily through the ring; and (iii) in the boundary matching phase, the wave packet was reset for the next tick.

The team measured the clock’s precision as the number of ticks it completed before it was one tick ahead or behind a perfect clock. Likewise, team members defined the entropy per tick to be the amount of energy dissipated per tick. Finally, the team compared this quantum clock to classical clocks and other quantum models, which typically show a linear relationship between precision and entropy: e.g. if the precision doubled, the entropy doubled as well.

The researchers, however, found that the precision of their quantum clock grew exponentially with entropy. In other words, if the amount of entropy per tick increased only slightly, the precision increased by a big leap. It was proof that, at least in principle, it’s possible to build a clock to be arbitrarily precise while keeping the system’s entropy down, all without falling afoul of the second law.

That is, contrary to what many physicists thought, the second law of thermodynamics doesn’t strictly limit a clock precision, at least not for quantum clocks like this one. The clock’s design allowed it to sidestep the otherwise usual trade-off between precision and entropy.

During coherent transport, the process is governed only by the system’s Hamiltonian, i.e. the rules for how energy moves in a closed quantum system. In this regime, the excitation acts like a wave that spreads smoothly and reversibly, without losing any energy or creating any disorder. Imagine a ball rolling on a perfectly smooth, frictionless track. It keeps moving without slowing down or heating up the track. Such a thing is impossible in classical mechanics, like in the ball example, but it’s possible in quantum systems. The tradeoff of course is that the latter are very small and very fragile and thus harder to manipulate.

In the present study, the researchers have proved that it’s possible to build a quantum clock that takes advantage of coherent transport to tick while dissipating very little energy. Their model, the spin chain, uses a Hamiltonian that only allows the excitation to coherently hop to its nearest neighbour. The researchers engineered the couplings between the sites in the preparation ramp part of the ring to shape the excitation into a traveling wave packet that moves predominantly in the forward direction.

This tendency to move in only direction is further bolstered at the last link, where the last site is coupled to the first. Here, the researchers installed a thermal gradient — a small temperature difference that encouraged the wave to restart its journey rather than be reflected and move backwards through the ring. When the excitation crossed this thermodynamic bias, the clock ticked once and also dissipated some energy.

Three points here. First, remember that this is a quantum system. The researchers are dealing with energy (almost) at its barest, manipulating it directly without having to bother with an accoutrement of matter covering it. In the classical regime, such accoutrements are unavoidable. For example, if you have a series of cups and you want to make an excitation hop through it, you do so with a marble. But while the marble contains the (potential) energy that you want to move through the cups, it also has mass and it dissipates energy whenever it hops into a cup, e.g. it might bounce when it lands and it will release sound when it strikes the cup’s material. So while the marble metaphor earlier might have helped you visualise the quantum clock, remember that the metaphor has limitations.

Second, for the quantum clock to work as a clock, it needs to break time-reversal symmetry (a concept I recently discussed in the context of quasicrystals). Say you remove the thermodynamic bias at the last link of the ring and replace it with a regular link. In this case the excitation will move randomly — i.e. at each step it will randomly pick the cup to move to, forward or backward, and keep going. If you reversed time, the excitation’s path will still be random and just evolve in reverse.

However, the final thermodynamically biased link causes the excitation to acquire a preference for moving in one direction. The system thus breaks time-reversal symmetry because even if you reverse the flow of time, the system will encourage the excitation to move in one direction and one direction only. This in turn is essential for the quantum system to function like a clock. That is, the excitation needs to traverse a fixed number of cups in the spin chain and then start from the first cup. Only between these two stages will the system count off a ‘tick’. Breaking time-reversal symmetry thus turns the device into a clock.

Three, the thermodynamic bias ensures that the jump from the last site to the first is more likely than the reverse, and the entropy is the cost the system pays in order to ensure the jump. Equally, the greater the thermodynamic bias, the more likely the excitation is to move in one direction through spin chain as well as make the jump in the right direction at the final step. Thus, the greater the thermodynamic bias, the more precise the clock will be.

The new study excelled by creating a sufficiently precise clock while minimising the entropy cost.

According to the researchers, its design design could help build better quantum clocks, which are important for quantum computers, quantum communication, and to make ultra-precise precise measurements of the kind demanded by atomic clocks. The clock’s ticks could also be used to emit single photons at regular intervals — a technology increasingly in demand for its use in quantum networks of the sort China, the US, and India are trying to build.

But more fundamentally, the clock’s design — which confines energy dissipation to a single link and uses coherent transport everywhere else — and that design’s ability to evade the precision-entropy trade-off challenges a longstanding belief that the second law of thermodynamics strictly limits precision.

Featured image credit: Meier, F., Minoguchi, Y., Sundelin, S. et al. Nat. Phys. (2025).